As the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) Founding Document indicates, despite moves towards economic liberalisation and more democratic forms of state organisation, many African countries continue to be dogged by dependency, conflict and poverty. The roots of these problems are complex and related to a history of colonialism, economic dependency and political upheaval. The common response to Africa's crisis has been to emphasise good governance practise and effective development management as outlined in the NEPAD strategy. However, very little attention is paid to the institutional and human resource capacity required to implement development interventions.

The common experience of African countries in dealing with the effects of modernisation, dependency and continuous conflicts over unevenly distributed and scarce resources provides an appropriate forum for building context-specific capacity development initiatives. These need to be structured in a way that supports continental, regional and national specificities. However, the challenge of identifying needs and programmes for a range of countries with unique requirements for development and growth is daunting. Strategies for facilitating the on-going support and sustainability of such initiatives must be premised on common experience but provide sufficient space for different realities.

Capacity development is understood in different ways ranging from economic capability to institutional performance to individual competence. NEPAD recognises that capacity is required at all these levels and that capacity development is a long-term investment in the sustainability of the initiative and the continent. Capacity development plans ranging from training programmes to institutional development and knowledge sharing are essential to ensuring the implementation of NEPAD.

This capacity development plan for NEPAD attempts to map out the key capacity building interventions required in the focus areas identified at the Roundtable Discussion on Capacity Development held on the 8^th of March 2002 (Secretariat, 2002). The discussion resulted in broad agreement on the guiding principles for capacity development as well as the priority short-term focus areas for capacity development: Peace and Security; Political and Economic Governance; Regional Integration and Public Sector Reform. In addition, this proposal outlines the necessary conditions for implementing long-term sustainable capacity development in the continent as a parallel process to the initiatives in the focus areas.

While many African countries and sub-regions have formulated and implemented development strategies, economic reform programmes and civil service reforms, the human and institutional capacity to support these plans has proved inadequate. Africa, as acknowledged in the NEPAD Founding document, suffers a shortage of the types of capacity necessary for sustained growth and development. This lack of capacity in key areas has been exacerbated in the 1980s and 1990s by economic crisis, shrinking resources, public sector inefficiency and poor operational and institutional facilities. There is also evidence of limited business sector and civil society capacities (Ogiogio and Ongile, 2001). In addition, many of Africa’s brightest and most qualified professionals leave to study and never return.

A brief analysis of the history of capacity development in Africa indicates that interventions have been largely inappropriate to the needs for sustainable development. Capacity development in Africa has been focused on externally driven or donor programmes. Over the range of initiatives in many different sectors and areas, capacity development has largely been geared towards training which is often supply-driven and framed by external expertise. This means that very little attention is paid to the development of an African approach, which would rely on the exchange, growth and development of African capacity.

Recent attempts driven by the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), the African Capacity Building Foundation (ACBF) and other institutions such as the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the Central African Centre for Training and Research in Administration (CAFRAD) have shifted the orientation of capacity building towards the areas of economic policy, management and policy analysis. These, together with a range of other institutions and networks, provide an important foundation for African-based capacity building interventions.

In brief, capacity development initiatives can be categorised as follows:

• Government Training Initiatives

• Regional Networks, Institutions and Initiatives

• Institutional Initiatives

There is a range of capacity building initiatives in place in Africa across a broad spectrum of areas and with different levels of quality. Many of the approaches used are specific to the context and style of particular countries or sub-regional networks. While there is variation, there are programmes and institutions that could form the basis of a continent-wide capacity development programme, provided some of the limitations are recognised. These include:

• Training is often conducted on an ad hoc basis without sufficient attention being paid to work related skills development, organisational purpose and institutional and/or country/regional context.
• There is an emphasis on technical and functional training without the development of a broad base of knowledge and frame of reference. This limits decision-making ability.
• There is a lack of a co-ordinated programme to address Africa’s key development needs. This results in duplication and a lack of African control over the quality and content.
• The absence of a highly capacitated human resource base on which to build affects the scope of capacity building interventions. While Africa’s human resources are its key capacity, many of the education systems are inadequate to meet the needs for the 21^st century.
• Capacity building should be supported by a culture that is oriented towards results. In many countries, the emphasis tends to be on procedures rather than performance.
• Funding and support for capacity building is largely dependent on donor grants.
• Access to capacity development opportunities is often defined by patronage, ranking or seniority.
• The strategy and style of capacity building institutions and the organisational forms and supporting policies, influence the content and quality of the programme.
• The availability of skilled African professionals is limited. There is tendency to rely on expertise from developed countries who do not always understand the complexities and context of African requirements.
• Research and knowledge management capacity is limited.
• Limited use is made of active learning methods and practical experience.

An awareness of these limitations is implicit in the guiding principles suggested for the capacity building programme (Secretariat, 2002) which include:

• ensuring that capacity development initiatives are guided by research and the continental, regional and national context
• utilising existing regional capacity, programmes and expertise in the delivery of programmes

• given the limited resources available for Capacity Development, external resources should be mobilised and be leveraged with appropriate internal regional and national resources.
• In designing and delivering the Capacity Development Interventions it would be important to utilise established ‘Centres of Excellence’ and where necessary establish these centres.

Capacity development is understood in a range of different ways ranging from economic capability for development (ACBF, 2002) to institutional performance (Lusthaus, Anderson, and Murphy 1995) to the more commonly understood individual competence. There is general awareness in the NEPAD plan that capacity is required at all these levels in Africa and that capacity development is a long-term investment in the sustainability of the initiative and the continent. In this context, capacity development includes a wide spectrum of interventions ranging from training programmes to institutional development.

A key aspect of capacity development in the African context is a focus on empowerment. This implies that capacity building should be directed towards enabling African people and institutions to assert control over their development. In practical terms, an empowerment approach involves increasing levels of access, participation and control over the distribution of resources for capacity development. This incremental process is implicit to the research and support plans outlined below which ensures that interventions are directed towards enhancing and growing African abilities to design, implement, evaluate and assess capacity development programmes. This would operate at individual, institutional, regional or continental levels and is depicted in graphic terms below.

Given the emphasis on empowerment, an integrated understanding of capacity development (described in the table below) implies a focus on three areas.

• Ethos and practice: articulating and implementing the principles of good practice
• Institutional development: designing and supporting effective structures, systems and procedures for improved services and institutions
• People development: skilling managers, professionals, members of civil society and others by building their competencies and providing support

If capacity development is not limited to the development of individual ability only, but includes the institutionalisation of appropriate working practises and strategies, linked to norms of behaviour, the strategy for implementing and sustaining capacity development must be differently conceived. The challenge then is to define not simply the training programmes, but the structures, systems, practices, codes and processes which will sustain these initiatives. This implies that capacity development plans must operate on several levels simultaneously. The interventions outlined below therefore assume a matrix of interventions – short to long term – which will enhance capacity to implement NEPAD policies in Africa. It is however recognised that it is unrealistic for a NEPAD capacity development programme to initially assume such a wide-ranging focus. Rather, a more modest and incremental approach is mooted which allows interventions to build up on and reinforce each other.

4. Key Challenges in Focus Areas

This section outlines the key challenges, current initiatives and proposed interventions and priorities in each of the focus areas. It should be noted that these challenges and the corresponding interventions defined would need to be reworked through a series of workshops in order to identify key short, medium and long terms priorities.

1. Political and Economic Governance

A distinguishing feature of democratic governance is that the electorate chooses leaders through regular, multiparty and competitive elections. Africa’s success rate in this regard has been mixed. Often military rule, ethnic conflict and patronage relationships characterise the "democratic" terrain. Given a history of colonialism, may use government power as a means of accessing resources. As a consequence, political governance in Africa has been characterised by bribery, corruption, rigging of elections and the disputes over the outcomes. There is an absence of independent Electoral Commissions and where they exist they lack the capacity to conduct free and fair elections. Election monitoring is an essential element in legitimatising the outcome of elections in Africa, as is the development of a framework to judge an election as free and fair.

The legislative arm of government performs three important functions – it represents the electorate, makes laws, and oversees the executive. In many African countries, legislatures are ill equipped to develop laws that promote democratic governance and economic development. They also lack appropriate oversight ability (knowledge and skills) to assess implementation. Finally, interaction with constituencies and citizens is often limited. This lack of capacity limits the role of the legislature in building and supporting political and economic governance.

Similarly, the capacity of civil society organisations to play a role in development is hampered by several factors such as a lack of internal democracy, lack of financial sustainability, inability to articulate their demands, limited research skills and fragmentation. For example, there is little coordination of activities between local, regional and national-based civil society organizations. Consequently they are unable to pool resources, both human and material, in order to enhance their effectiveness and capacity.

The decentralisation process in Africa has meant that regional and local governments have become providers of basic social services and infrastructure that affect the welfare of local population and to promote sustainable economic development. There is however a pervasive lack of capacity by local government councillors and officials to meet the new responsibilities being entrusted to them. They lack the skills and knowledge to set implementable goals, undertake financial planning and human resource development, consult with local communities and promote sustainable development.

Across Africa, there is low representation of women in decision-making structures and processes in both the public and private sectors. As a result, issues that affect women specifically are marginalized in public policy. A key challenge is to ensure increased representation of women in decision-making structures, disaggregated statistics on the impact of policy, and training for women in government and public organisations.

Government, in the formulation of social and economic policy, tends to marginalize key stakeholders - business, trade unions and civil society. There are very few mechanisms for government to dialogue with stakeholders to seek consensus on social and economic policies. Where these exist, they are ad hoc and often lack organisational and research capacities to facilitate consensus on social and economic policies. Consequently, there is an absence of a shared vision of national transformation and lack of credibility of adopted policies. This undermines investors’ confidence in Africa’s economies and reduces its growth prospects.

2. Capacity development initiatives

There are a number of capacity building initiatives in place in Africa around the area of economic and political governance. A considerable number of these initiatives are donor driven, ad hoc, uncoordinated and aimed to conform to the market imperatives of development. However, there are a range of African based capacity building initiatives which focus on political and economic governance including the activities initiated by the ACBF, Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) and CAFRAD.

There have been a number of programmes aimed at training election monitors across the continent to play an oversight role during and after elections. In this respect, the Carter Centre, the Commonwealth, the Electoral Institute of Southern Africa, and a range of NGOs (often formed to monitor elections) have valuable experiences that the continent could draw upon. Despite this experience, the election monitoring capacity building is carried out on ad hoc basis. Some local NGOs lack the necessary expertise to carry out such programmes and have a high turnover of staff. Also, election support from donors tends to focus on national elections rather than regional or local elections.

International funding bodies and development agencies have been very active in the area of capacity building for local councillors in Africa. The World Bank and the UNDP are some of the most active players in this area. Support provided ranges from research to specific training programmes. In addition, the SAPES Trust based in Harare and a number of tertiary institutions in Africa run courses for councillors and their officials. Many of programmes are certificate-oriented and do not lead to an enhanced institutional development.

There have been some initiatives to address some of the legislative challenges in Africa, although they are far from adequate. These programmes are carried out or funded by international agencies such as the United States (US) based National Democratic Institute, the European Union (EU) and the Commonwealth. They take a variety of forms including study tours to developed countries. The duration of such tours are too short for the participants to understand and internalise the information. In addition, foreign experts run these programmes with very little utilisation of African scholars and experts. A number of Universities run short courses for members of the legislature, mostly on request.

The International Labour Office (ILO) is the only body that has undertaken capacity building initiatives to promote social dialogue in Africa. However, its programmes have been confined to government, business and trade unions. In addition, labour market issues rather than macro-economic and industrial policies have dominated its programmes. These programmes are also limited to national level. African institutions, with few exceptions, tend not to run courses on social dialogue. Those that do offer courses focus their effort on students rather than policy-makers.

There is no systematic and structured training for civil society organisations and movements, with the exception of the trade unions. Most of the programmes are in-house or in foreign countries in the forms of internships and short courses. There are Africa wide programmes such as the Annual Human Rights camps for human rights workers organised by the Human Rights Institute of South Africa. Such programmes are, however, too academic and do not address the organisational and financial challenges faced by African civil society organisations (CSOs). Some African Universities such as the Centre for Civil Society at the University of Natal and the Graduate School of Public and Development Management at the University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa have introduced courses to meet the specific challenges facing African CSOs. The Community Constituency of the South African National Economic Development Council (NEDLAC) is also facilitating a process to increase networking of Southern African CSOs as part of the New Contonou Agreement. However, because of internal disagreement within South African CSOs, this initiative has been stalled. Nevertheless other African CSOs could explore the Contonou Convention to set up a regional network.

Gender and women’s empowerment has received increased attention especially in the area of research capacity building and training. A number of training programmes have been carried out by local NGOs and international organisations such as the UNDP. The problem, however, is that most of these activities are attended by women only.

3. Priorities and interventions

The following broad interventions are proposed in the area of political and economic governance:

1. Strengthening the capacity of parliaments and legislatures to exercise effective oversight of government financial policy and management and initiate policy proposals as part of a more general process of enhancing oversight and law making capabilities.
2. The development of regional programmes which support the development of skills in the areas of legislation drafting, transparency, constituency liaison, legislative-civil society relations, legislative-executive relations and the role of the opposition.
3. Training administrative and research staff in legislatures is also required.
4. Formulation of an African Code of Good Corporate Ethics and Conduct with an emphasis on norms as regards tax compliance, prevention and combating of corruption, disclosure of corporate information, conflict-of-interest situations and social responsibility.
5. Training of auditors and formulation of pan African audit norms.
6. Development and implementation of a peer review mechanism to governance against agreed on indicators.
7. Support for the development of an African Observatory of Press Freedom and Ethics;
8. Development of programmes to support the independence of the judiciary and strengthening of Constitutional Courts.
9. The provision of support for the establishment and strengthening of Electoral Commissions. This would include:
10. training for commissioners on their role and functions.
11. information technology support to establish reliable voter registers.
12. Training of leaders of political parties, civic groups and ''captains of public service" in core democratic values, the principles and practices of multiparty democracy, and the core "rules" of free and fair elections.
13. Where possible, a programme of civic education for citizens on their rights and duties to promote and uphold democratic governance. This could take the form of popular material developed from a central source.
14. Regional workshops for CSOs leading to the establishment of regional networks to co-ordinate activities and research.
15. The development of a training programme for local officials and councillors with a focus on improving skills and capacity for effective performance of their duties. The material from this programme should lead to the development of a Resource Book for local councillors and officials.
16. A conference for core economic ministers, their top officials, business leaders, trade union leaders and leaders of civil society on socio-economic transformation should be held annually in regions. This will lead to the development of a framework for dialogue and consensus building around social and economic policy. This should be replicated a national level.
17. Regional and national institutions to advocate and support gender participation in governance should be identified and supported.

The NEPAD peace and security initiative has a number of elements, aimed at promoting the long-term conditions for peace and security; building the capacity of African institutions for early warning of conflicts and enhancing their capacity to prevent, manage and resolve conflicts, and institutionalising commitment to the core values of NEPAD within African leadership (NEPAD 2001, 18-19).

The second meeting of NEPAD’s Heads of State and Government Implementation Committee (HSIC), held in Abuja in March 2002, identified the following as the main priorities for the Sub-Committee on Peace and Security:

• Enhance capacity to conduct thorough inclusive strategic assessments of situations in regions affected by conflicts;
• Support efforts aimed at developing early warning systems at continental and sub-regional levels, including the development of strategic analysis and database systems;
• Support post-conflict reconstruction and development in affected countries, including rehabilitation of infrastructure, the population as well as refugees and internally displaced persons, with a special focus on sustainable programmes of disarmament, demobilization and rehabilitation;
• Support efforts to curb the illicit proliferation, circulation and trafficking in small arms and light weapons in Africa;
• Support efforts to promote democracy, good governance and respect for human rights through appropriate policy and institutional reforms; and
• Assist in resource mobilisation for the African Union Peace Fund (HSIC 2002: paragraph 7).

The meeting to determine Concrete Steps for Policy and Programme Development for the NEPAD Peace and Security Cluster, held on 6-7 May 2002 in Pretoria clustered the above priorities into three principal areas:

1. Conflict prevention, management and resolution, from the sub-regional level to the international level;
2. Policy and institutional reform;
3. Action to deal with the problem of small arms and light weapons proliferation (NEPAD Peace and Security Cluster 2002: paragraph 3).

Building capacity for the above will need to be done in large part through the AU and through African sub-regional organisations, as well as through national governments and African civil society. NEPAD has identified the AU as the focal point for strengthening conflict management mechanisms. It is envisaged that the existing OAU Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution will be considerably strengthened under the AU by establishing three organs around which it will be built:

• The Peace and Security Council, consisting of 15 member states and responsible for a wide range of decisions and functions in relation to early warning, preventive diplomacy, peace-making, peace support operations and interventions; peace-building and post-conflict reconstruction; the promotion of security and stability and humanitarian assistance;
• The Commission of the Union, the operational arm of the Peace and Security Council; and
• A Panel of the Wise, an independent advisory body composed of highly respected African personalities (OAU nd: Articles 4-7).

Furthermore, the Mechanism will entail a Continental Early Warning System consisting of a ‘situation room’ at AU headquarters as well as regional observation and monitoring units, and a Pan-African Standby Force comprising military and civilian contingents based in member countries for rapid deployment in a wide range of peace missions, including military interventions, observation and monitoring missions, peace-building tasks and preventive deployment (OAU nd: Articles 8 –9).

It should be noted that there is also a strong overlap between the above initiatives and some of those contained in the NEPAD Democracy and Political Governance Initiative, especially the African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM), which will need to be harmonised with developments with regard to the Conference on Security, Stability, Development and Cooperation in Africa (CSSDCA).

The key challenges for capacity building for the Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution have been identified in the Draft Programme Funding Proposal for the Implementation of the Peace and Security Agenda of the African Union as follows:

• Extending the mandate and capacity of the Mechanism to deal with peacekeeping and post-conflict peace-building and reconstruction;
• Enhancing the effectiveness of the Central Organ of the Mechanism;
• Strengthening the Conflict Management Centre as the operational arm of the Organ;
• Strengthening the OAU/AU Peace Fund (OAU 2002: 23-37)

Many of the security functions of the AU and NEPAD will be devolved to the sub-regional level and specifically to sub-regional organisations such as the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) or the Southern African Development Community (SADC). In particular, these organisations will be called upon to contribute to early warning, the prevention, management and resolution of conflict, post-conflict peace building, peacemaking and peacekeeping. The mandate and capacity of sub-regional organisations to deal with such issues varies widely.

Furthermore, individual states will need to build additional capacities to adequately deal with the priorities identified in the NEPAD Peace and Security Initiative, and to contribute to sub-regional and regional conflict prevention, resolution and management as well as to the other tasks identified above. Capacities vary tremendously and security functions in many African states are still carried out in non-transparent ways and decision-making remains highly centralised. In other states, conflict remains endemic or the states are only just emerging from periods of protracted conflict. NEPAD has therefore identified capacity building for the disarmament, demobilisation, rehabilitation and reintegration into civil society of former combatants (DDRR) as key issue, as well the reform of security policy and institutions on a national level (NEPAD Peace and Security Cluster: paragraphs 12 –23). This will require additional capacity building at state level.

Some capacity building is required at civil society level as civil society is expected to play an important role in the CCSSD process and the AU makes provision for consultations with civil society. Furthermore, civil society organisations can play important roles in early warning and conflict resolution.

Capacity building for the NEPAD Peace and Security Initiative thus has to take place at the inter-governmental level (both regional and sub-regional), as well as at the governmental level and within civil society.

Systems or knowledge development capacity-building is required inter alia in the construction of early warning systems at all levels, in the development of databases and analytic capacity for early warning and conflict resolution, transformation and management, peace-building and peace-keeping, security sector reform, DDRR and actions to prevent the proliferation of light weapons.

Organisational and institutional development is required at the regional level to develop and operationalise in particular the Peace and Security Council, the Panel of the Wise, the Commission of the African Union, the Central Organ of the Mechanism and the Conflict Management Centre. This will require capacity building for organisational design and development, resource mobilisation, staffing and human resource management, strategic planning, project management and operations and financial management.

Organisational and institutional development will also be required for the development of security analysis, decision-making and management capacities at sub-regional level.

At national level, many states will need to be assisted in the process of organisational and institutional development resulting from security sector reform, and to enable them to carry out the functions at national level needed to support the peace and security objectives of NEPAD.

Training of individuals is required to support all of the above. This should include the training of political leaders (ministers and parliamentarians responsible for security functions) as well as of government officials and leaders in civil society. Training will need to be carried on a multinational as well as a national basis. The training will need to be both conceptual in nature – given the significant conceptual shifts involved in NEPAD – and skills oriented. Military, police and civilian personnel will all require to be trained.

1. Capacity development initiatives

Capacity-building in the peace and security field (especially the latter) has been limited due in part to donor resistance to dealing with security issues as part of development assistance during the Cold War period and in part due to concerns of African states that security issues should be protected from external scrutiny and assistance for reasons of sovereignty and regime insecurities.

On issues of conflict-resolution, peace making and peace building, there has been a rapid increase in capacity building since the end of the Cold War. Much of this has been driven by UN agencies, international organisations and NGOs, and has been aimed at government officials as well as political and civil society leaders. Much of it is ad hoc, issue-oriented and disjointed, however, and is driven by donor priorities or by relatively small NGOs, with little effort to ensure that individual development, institutional development and systems development are harmonised over the long term. Some of this training has taken place in the context of UN peace missions, for example in Sierra Leone, and in these contexts attention has also been paid to grass-roots conflict resolution training.

In most countries, training for diplomats is carried out in purpose-specific national training institutes. The training at higher levels will typically involve capacity building in areas of diplomacy that are important to peace-making and conflict resolution. The quality and extent of this training varies greatly and in some cases is provided by through assistance schemes from other countries.

Training for military and police personnel is likewise carried out in dedicated institutions in most countries, and as part of overall operational preparations. Again, there are wide variations in the level of training provided, with some countries being able to offer only basic training while others can offer dedicated degrees in police or military science. In most African countries, traditions, organisational approaches, equipment, doctrine and training procedures have been inherited to greater or lesser degree from the former colonial power, and in many countries officers are still sent for further training to the former colonial power or to other developed countries. A number of bilateral military assistance programmes exist, for example the British Military Assistance and Training Team (BMATT), and in some cases these go beyond training of individuals to institutional and knowledge development. Usually these programmes take the form of small numbers of advisors or trainers seconded from developed countries who spend periods of time in in-country training and advice. This is sometimes supported by other forms of aid and offers of further training for officers in the donor country.

Relatively few capacity-building initiatives have been developed at regional level. At the OAU, donor countries have been supporting the Project Management Team, which is a management and administrative facility for the Conflict Management Centre, and have also supported the development of the early warning system by developing and supporting analysts and providing organisational support. The OAU has a long-standing arrangement for technical support for capacity building with the UNDP. Donors have contributed significantly to the OAU Peace Fund, 62 per cent of which has been funded by non-African countries (OAU 2002: Annex III).

Other externally driven continental initiatives include the United States African Crisis Response Initiative which aims to train the militaries of individual states to deal with regional or sub-crises and to enhance their military professionalism. A small number of African countries have taken up this training. The United States has also developed the African Centre for Strategic Studies, an initiative aimed at carrying out high-level training through short courses for senior African officers and officials involved in security issues, delivered in various African countries.

At the sub-regional level, some capacity building initiatives have been carried out, again usually with donor support. Typically this has involved support for the development of sub-regional institutions, support to NGOs or academic institutions working on a sub-regional basis, and support for research initiatives and training initiatives on a multinational basis. Much of this has been ad hoc and un-coordinated.

There has been a considerable expansion in capacity-building initiatives for peacekeeping since the end of the Cold War, mostly at sub-regional or national level. One such example is the SADC Regional Peacekeeping Training Centre, set up in Zimbabwe with Danish support, which has aimed to train military personnel from all SADC countries on a multinational basis, and also to act as a clearinghouse for information about training, doctrine and other issues. African countries have also been able to avail themselves of UN peacekeeping training, and a number of officers and officials have attended a variety of courses offered internationally, for example at the Lester B. Pearson Centre in Canada. A number of multinational peacekeeping training exercises – again on a sub-regional level – have been held in various parts of the continent.

Capacity building for civil society has been almost entirely donor-driven. This has typically involved support for research functions – the Institute for Security Studies in South Africa, for example, has generated a considerable range of research on issues related to African security – and for training, often in the field of conflict resolution. In some countries, especially South Africa, this has led to civil society organisations developing considerable research, policy and (to a lesser extent) institutional development capacity.

In a few cases sub-regional networks involving partnerships between governments and academic institutions or NGOs have been developed. In West Africa, an emerging network is centred on the Centre for Democracy and Development and Africa Security and Defence Research, while in Southern Africa the Southern African Defence and Security Management Network has played an important role in research, policy development and training for security sector reform, peace mission management and national defence management on a multinational basis.

2. Priorities and interventions

As NEPAD is essentially aimed at strengthening the AU, and has identified the AU as the nodal point for conflict resolution and related activities, most of the institutional capacity building at inter-governmental level should be aimed at developing the AU and the sub-regional organisations to which much of its work in this area is devolved. A framework for the strategic evolution of the AU’s Mechanism, including such important organs as the Peace and Security Council, has been drafted by the OAU.

A priority should be to build capacity for operationalising the Draft Protocol relating to the Mechanism, in particular:

• The Peace and Security Council: It is unclear at this stage what capacity building measures would be appropriate for this structure. As this is an entirely new organisation for the AU – and one of its most important – it is likely that development will need to take place at the individual, institutional and systems level.
• The Commission of the Union, the operational arm of the Peace and Security Council, will need to be built largely from scratch, involving the recruitment and training of staff, the establishment of an information management system and database, and the development of organisational management systems.
• The Panel of the Wise is likewise a new structure and will certainly require a servicing mechanism if it is to succeed. It should be able to draw on the capacities of the Commission and the Early Warning System, however.
• The Continental Early Warning System, including the ‘situation room’, presents enormous capacity-building challenges, although it can be constructed on the basis of limited existing capacity. This will require the training of analysts, the introduction of leading-edge communication systems (in part to allow rapid communication with the sub-regional centres, NGOs, the UN and other international organisations) and the development of databases and modelling systems. This will need to be replicated at sub-regional level, for example within the Economic Community of West African States, where a commitment has already been made to develop early warning capabilities but little progress has been made. Without effective sub-regional capability, the continental function will not be effective.
• The Pan-African Standby Force requires considerable capacity building, at national, sub-regional and regional levels. Management of such a system will require training of key personnel, development of doctrine and procedures, close attention to inter-operability, building relations with the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations, developing management systems for rapid deployment logistics, and financial and legal skilling of key personnel. It would be useful to make use of current best practice, for example, the Standing High Readiness Brigade (SHIRBRIG) developed by several countries to support UN missions and based in Denmark. Particular attention will need to be paid to the training of officers and personnel earmarked for the various standby units: they will be required to be trained in the wide range of UN peacekeeping doctrine and logistics, as well as in human rights, law of armed conflict and conflict resolution.

All-round capabilities in preventive diplomacy, conflict resolution and related functions will have to be enhanced. NEPAD has called for the establishment of a database of a broad range of experts, including senior officials and technical experts who could be used in fact-finding and verification missions (NEPAD Peace and Security Cluster 2002: 4) but it is likely that additional training will also be required.

Policy and institutional reform requires specific skills and knowledge if they are to be carried out successfully, especially in the highly sensitive area of national security. Security sector reform involves a raft of complex policy and institutional reform processes, all of which will need to be supported, especially at national level, by training, research, policy support, professional and technical advice and management development. The tasks include:

• Establishing democratic political control and oversight over the security forces: this will require the development of effective organisations for the management and oversight of defence, policing and intelligence, and the training of senior civil servants, uniformed personnel and parliamentarians in the principles and practice of civil-military relations as well as such skills as budgeting and defence procurement;
• Defining appropriate roles and functions for the security forces, which will require professional and technical support;
• Right-sizing of defence and other security forces, which will require capacity-building for careful management and planning and technical support;
• Transparent, accountable and appropriate budgeting systems resulting in appropriate allocations for security given competing demands, requiring training in budgeting for senior civil servants, senior defence and police personnel and parliamentarians as well as technical support and the development of managerial systems;
• Consultative policy development involving other relevant government departments and civil society where appropriate, requiring training in policy processes and management and policy analysis, as well as the development of data bases and a knowledge base;
• Enhancing civil-military relations through joint training of civilian and military personnel;
• Ensuring adherence to the rule of law and to human rights by security forces requiring training in the principles of democracy, the laws of armed conflict, international humanitarian law and human rights law and practice (ISS 2002).

Countering the proliferation of light arms will require technical support for the introduction of national, sub-regional and regional policy instruments, as well as detailed research and data-basing.

To enhance research and policy support, it will be necessary to strengthen policy units and functions within governments through training and research support, and also to develop capacity within tertiary and research institutions. To ensure that leading-edge research is reflected in the policy processes in Africa, linkages should be made between such African institutions and other regional and international institutions and Africa-wide or sub-regional networks should be constructed.

The success of the AU, and of NEPAD, will depend to a large extent on the enhanced functioning of sub-regional organisations, particularly with regard to peace and security and democracy and political governance. This will require a renewed emphasis on confidence- and security-building measures (CBSMs) within sub-regions and effective support for the construction of sub-regional political and security mechanisms supported by efficient professional structures. This will require training on a multinational basis for senior civil servants, senior security personnel and leaders of civil society in defence and security policy and management issues and in issues related to regional and sub-regional security, to contribute to the development of common values and approaches to security management.

The above represents an enormous challenge requiring training, structural and systems support and the building of knowledge and understandings at the regional, sub-regional and state levels and to some extent within civil society. It is evident that priorities will have to be determined. It is unlikely that regional and sub-regional organisations can be effectively built without strong states; at the same time strengthening state capacity itself will not lead to the realisation of the NEPAD peace and security objectives, which depend on the development of a common African approach to collectively shared security risks and threats. It is therefore essential that capacities are built simultaneously at the state and inter-state levels. Key priorities should be capacity for conflict prevention/management/resolution, peacekeeping, early warning, the democratic management of security functions and security sector reform.

The major challenges in capacity building related to the promotion of regional cooperation and integration are the following:

1. Trade Policy: The need to understand the dynamics of the gains and losses arising from regional cooperation and their implications for the design of regional cooperation agreements taking into account (a) the nature of intraregional trade; and (b) the nature of north-south trade of a bilateral and multilateral nature.
2. Multilateral Organisations: The need to understand and acquire skills related to the functioning and regulatory regimes of multilateral organisations such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Trade Organisation (WTO), the World Bank and UN Committee for Trade and Development (UNCTAD) and their implications for the design and functioning of regional organisations. There is a need to develop negotiation skills for individuals to engage with such multilateral bodies.
3. Financial Flows: The need to understand and acquire skills in the nature of intra-regional, multilateral and bilateral financial flows arising from official agreements and private direct investment and their implications for regional cooperation.
4. Labour Flows: The need to understand and acquire skills in the tracking and analysis of intra-regional labour flows and their implications for regional cooperation.
5. Social Policy: The need to understand and acquire skills in the nature of social policy and social security regimes and their implications for regional cooperation and social policy especially with respect to the need for harmonization and transferability of social security safety nets.
6. Macroeconomic policy regimes: The need to understand the implications of national macroeconomic regimes and their implications for regional cooperation, the promotion of regional competitiveness and inclusive development within member nations and for the region.
7. Incentive structures: The need to understand the design and use of supply-incentives at the national and regional levels to promote inclusive development and competitiveness within the context of global economic parameters.

2. Capacity development initiatives

Regional integration is a key aspect of the NEPAD plan and one of the more under-developed areas in terms of capacity development initiatives on the ground. Many of these initiatives in place, as in other focus areas, take place on national, regional and continental level. Multilateral and donor agencies play an important role in the definition of issues and needs. A comprehensive review of current initiatives is needed but some of those currently under way include:

• Training programmes by the Africa Capacity Building Foundation targeted at enhancing skills for economic policy making in Africa;
• The activities of the African Economic Research Consortium aimed enhancing the development of skills in macroeconomic analysis and economic modelling;
• Activities of the Organisation for Social Science Research in Africa (OSSRIA) aimed at capacity building;
• Activities of CODESRIA aimed enhancing understanding of regional integration and economic policy making for inclusive development;
• The training provided by the Development Bank of South Africa, the African Development Bank and the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA);
• Activities of SARIPS in training individuals from the Southern African region on policy studies and regional cooperation;
• Various activities being undertaken at national level by governments dealing with trade and multilateral matters by Departments of Foreign Affairs and Trade and Industry.

2. Priorities and interventions

There is a need to understand the role and functioning of multilateral institutions and their implications for regional cooperation with respect to rules and regulations, information and knowledge acquisition about the global trade environment, the design of regional cooperation groupings compatible with regulatory regimes of multilateral organisations and negotiating skills within multilateral institutions. This would include:

• training in international trade laws and negotiation and the establishment of a body of international trade negotiations lawyers;
• establishment of an African Centre for strategic forecasting and analysis of regional and world economic trends, threats and opportunities

The development of capacity in policy formulation through the training in research and analytical skills with a focus on understanding how best to design and promote and sustain regional cooperation that results in positive sum outcomes for members and that results in the promotion of equitable development within and between countries.

There is a need to develop data warehouses accessible to member countries that can collect and disseminate information pertaining to regional cooperation and its impact on member states particularly as related to the nature of tariff and non-tariff regimes at regional and national levels, the nature of trade, labour and financial flows, the nature of non-tariff requirements at the national and regional levels, and the nature of the impact of regional trade on socio-economic conditions such as employment, incomes, and structural change within member countries.

The design of appropriate institutions to promote mutually beneficial regional cooperation continues to be an elusive task which requires the development of personnel with skills to design such institutions and monitor their performance and impact. It is necessary to develop adequate mechanisms for the monitoring and evaluation of regional trade at the national and regional levels. Hence training individuals to acquire the necessary skills to monitor and evaluate regional groupings is important. Such training should have a sectoral focus for each of the major areas of regional cooperation in a given region.

Capacities need to be developed to monitor foreign direct investment, development finance, and domestic investment in order to understand their impact of regional development particularly with respect to growth in gross domestic product and employment and the promotion of competitiveness and inclusive or equitable development in the each region. Such training should also focus on the how various incentives can be utilized at national and regional levels to promote increased investment.

Information on financial flows within the region and between the region and the outside world needs to be collected and monitored to inform on their impact and on the need for increase mobilization of resources. There is a need for institutions to be established to monitor financial flows and advise on how best they can be maximized. In institutions need to developed to facilitate the mobilization and flow of financial resources from within and outside the region. Individuals need to be trained to manage such institutions who have a good understanding of regional dynamics and their relationship to the private and public sectors nationally, regionally and globally. Regional Development Banks accountable to regional cooperation groupings and staffed by individuals from within the region are needed to facilitate mobilization of financial resources for the regional cooperation groupings.

There is a need for an adequate capacity for analysis of labour market trends within countries and their implications for regional cooperation. Training of labour economists, human resource specialists and migration specialists is needed. Together with the establishment of institutions to monitor regional and national labour flows. The development of labour market information and statistics is needed together with a data warehousing facility and capacity to collect and analyse such information.

Each regional grouping needs to have a human resource development plan to cater for the needs of member states and the regional cooperation grouping with respect to the number of areas such as the following: accountants, financial analysts, sectoral specialists, development finance specialists, policy analysts, statisticians, labour economists, project mangers and analysts, planning specialists, marine science experts, information technology specialists, tourism specialists and so on. A database of specialists available for regional cooperation tasks should be developed. There is a need to develop Centres of Excellence to train critical masses of specialists in key areas of regional cooperation. Such Centres of Excellence should be fairly distributed across member states on the basis of comparative advantage and efficiency of individual institutions and countries among member states.

The area of development finance has yet to be fully developed and exploited. It has tremendous implications for regional cooperation especially with respect to the development regional economic and social infrastructure. There is a need to develop experts in their fields so that reliance on foreign experts is reduced. Regional Centres of Excellence need to establish. A database of projects funded through development finance is needed and the projects need to be monitored and their impact analysed with aim of assessing the degree to which they contribute to regional and national development and competitiveness.

Regional integration should be guided by the need to improve standards of living of the majority in member countries. Thus regional cooperation policy regimes need to be formulated in a manner that promotes inclusive development in a sustainable manner. Policy makers are needed who understand how to formulate inclusive strategies that would be sustainable in the current global order. Regional institutions in the form of Centres of Excellence are needed to train policy experts imbued with the necessary perspective and to undertake research in policy related aspects of regional cooperation.

The belief that public sectors in Africa need to be reformed is an important component of the NEPAD strategy. It is also a factor in determining the success or failure of reform. The will to push changes, rather than merely assert their importance, is essential. While political support for reform is necessary, it is institutions that affect the agenda for reform and its outcomes. Institutional complexity engenders more opportunities and pathways for reform proposals to arise, but also provides a greater number of blockage points to prevent reforms from being approved or implemented. This is particularly the case in Africa where institutional capacity is limited and often a serious constraint. The only advantage of relatively weak legislatures is that they allow the executive the opportunity to indulge in managerialism, whereas a more independent legislature frequently leads to greater conflict and unpredictability over appropriate goals, control over resources, and appropriate oversight and accountability mechanisms.

Most public sector reform programmes in Africa, imposed through structural adjustment or adopted to improve service delivery, do not achieve the intended results. The reasons cited for this inability to transform African public sectors into efficient and effective administrative service units are numerous, and include: poor policy implementation, insufficient social and public infrastructures, inefficient services and institutions, excessive centralisation of services, decisions, resources and powers, mismanagement of public funds and enterprises, lack of adequate development policy, unproductive and unmotivated civil servants, corruption, backward economy and inadequate resources. Most reasons provided are probably accurate, but as identified in NEPAD, the enhancement of the capacity of the public sector to deliver basic services is crucial to future African development.

Specific capacity challenges that need to be addressed include:

• Unthinking adherence to often outdated rules and regulation. Accountability to the rule rather than the citizen prevails undermining the development of a culture of service.
• Public services are corrupt and operate an ethical vacuum where the illegitimacy of the state has been consolidated into a culture of personal gain and misappropriation of funds.
• Management techniques are outdated and tend to be rigid and inflexible and more concerned with adherence to regulations than outputs. New technology and systems are ignored.
• Political and financial accountability up the line and to citizens is limited. Information is concentrated in the hands of senior officials, and both the public and front-line workers are often denied access to the information on which key decisions are based.
• Public service staff are often under-trained and lack key managerial and technical skills. Essential public management skills such as policy analysis, strategic planning, resource mobilisation and facilitation, programme and project management, conflict resolution and information management are absent.
• Inappropriate institutional and operational frameworks for the delivery of services.

Given these challenges and the increasing flow of aid to Africa, African public sectors have been under increasing pressure to tighten up their performance. The scope of adopted development functions has been criticised under increasing pressure to rein in state expenditure. The initial post-colonial growth of the state which resulted in archaic processes and procedures, growing public sectors and questions about the competency of public servants in terms of policy making and implementation, have been replaced by an emphasis on . This occurred in a context in which political systems were being challenged and calls for democracy raised. Given this context, combined with shrinking resources and growing poverty and unemployment, African public sectors are increasingly called upon to focus on areas such as performance management and decentralisation under the mantle of structural adjustment and managerialism. This has raised the following issues:

• Concerns with regard to public sector employment in terms of composition, skills, costs, conditions, labour relations and incentives for stabilising staff turnover.
• A focus on perceived corruption and patronage and its effects on service delivery.
• Poor responsiveness to changed priorities and the challenges of service delivery in highly unequal contexts.
• Operational efficiency and service delivery and the use of e-government as a means to improve delivery and knowledge management.
• A growing concern about deficits, high inflation and over-valued national currencies that deepen poverty and increase dependency on Aid. In particular, more effective public finance budget, management and accountability systems are required.
• Improvement of revenue collection and taxation regulations.

2. Capacity development initiatives

Capacity development initiatives for the public sector in Africa have tended as a rule to be externally driven and linked to aid interventions. While public sector reform initiatives in Africa have been a mechanism for achieving better socio-economic development, capacity building initiatives have served largely to institutionalise colonial legacies. In the 1960s, for example, public sector reform programmes in Africa were premised an understanding that administration was comprised of universal principles applicable in all contexts. This approach to public administration was exported to Africa through the Comparative Administrative Group supported by the Ford Foundation, as part of an attempt to improve government efficiency. Understood as development administration, this discipline focused largely on discovering the administrative principles which would enable countries to achieve their political agendas through effective policy implementation. This approach was shifted in the 1980s as a consequence of fiscal crisis and deepening poverty and supplanted by initiatives to support structural adjustment programmes of various types.

Despite a preponderance of World Bank and United Nations defined and driven capacity initiatives provided largely through their institutional networks, there are a broad range of universities, research organisation and regional networks that provide training, support and research capacity development for public sector reform. Some of these institutions are outlined below:

• The Commonwealth Association for Public Administration and Management (CAPAM) is dedicated to strengthening public management and consolidating democracy and good governance throughout the Commonwealth.
• The United Nations Public Management (UNPAM) support unit provides technical, research and training support as does the World Bank’s and OECD’s equivalent units.
• The International Institute of Administrative Sciences, which promotes the development of the administrative sciences and the better operation of public administrative and public management agencies at all levels, is an important resource in terms of research and intellectual capital.
• Regional institutions such as CAFRAD and East African Institute for Administration and Management (ESAMI) offer a series of public sector reform related courses ranging from policy development to strategic management to financial management.
• Universities also offer a range of courses that include administration or management degrees.

Quite a lot of training for public sector reform takes place in institutions outside of Africa through American universities funded by the World Bank or USAID. In addition, a lot of training takes place on an in-service basis through foreign aid programmes which import capacity and expertise for public sector reform. Technocrats from Australian, Canadian, French or other western government aid initiatives have assisted many African public sector reform or administration departments in their initiatives.

2. Priorities and interventions

The development of appropriate regulatory frameworks for the public sector reform through regional colloquia of public sector officials will lead to the development of more appropriate regulatory frameworks for government in Africa, as well as build the capacity of public officials to use the public sector system for social and economic development. This should lead to the development of a common understanding of the key guiding principles for public sector reform and management in Africa. It will also result in the establishment of an regional and continental networks of public officials engaged in change, and provide the basis for ongoing sustainable support in this area.

Capacity for revenue collection can be improved through the a series of workshops for tax officials which focus on African success stories such as the South African Revenue Service. The interrogation of case studies that demonstrate good practise and successes in the African context should result in development of support strategies through the sharing of information, strategies and staff. Exchange programmes and twinning will also ensure a more appropriate spread of African capacity in the area. In addition, the process should be documented to ensure the development of guides and frameworks for ongoing use. This process could be extended over time to include other aspects of state fiscal management resulting in the production of an annual African Fiscal Policy and Performance Report

A focus on the improvement of public sector capacity for service delivery is a key aspect of the reform development plan. Operational management and implementation skills that focus on specific areas such as e-government, organisational strategies for social inclusion or dealing with impoverished communities are crucial in the current African context. These interventions will respond to regional needs and be adaptable to changing contexts. They will be directed towards the development of a cadre of skilled African public managers aware of the constraints of service delivery in contexts of fiscal austerity and extreme poverty. This programme will also be linked to the development of sustainable research capacity to assess the lesson leaned from different public sector reform strategies and inform future practise.

The purpose of the capacity building plan is the development of individual and institutional capacity to ensure that the conditions for effective development in Africa are created and supported.

The outcomes are directed towards ensuring that institutions, officials and stakeholders in each of the focus areas are able to perform more effectively in their work to support growth and development in Africa. Specifically, this means:

• In the area of peace and security: officials and political leaders will be better able to conceptualise, analyse, develop, manage and implement policies, and build national and inter-governmental organisations, for the achievement of the NEPAD peace and security objectives
• In the area of political and economic governance: the training and development programme will ensure enhanced governance performance through the improvement of relationships between the legislature, the judiciary and the executive at national and regional level. This, in addition to training on responsible economic management and more effective relationships between government and civil society.

• In the area of regional integration: stakeholders and experts will be able to more effectively negotiate multi-level trade deals and centres of excellence will train, engage in research, disseminate information and maintain data-bases on aspects of regional integration.

• In the area of public sector reform: officials and political leaders will be better able to develop and implement regulatory frameworks, improve revenue collection and conceptualise, analyse, manage and implement service delivery in the context of fiscal austerity.

• Institutional structures and systems to support the implementation of capacity development at national (through NEPAD/AU nodal points) and regional levels (through existing or new regional programmes and networks or the development of centres of excellence). This will lead to institutional co-ordination and harmonisation between inter-governmental and governmental levels and between various initiatives achieved.
• Research and knowledge systems that develop and support the cultures and understandings that build appropriate working practices and values. This would include mechanisms for monitoring and evaluation such as the peer review mechanism for governance. In particular, research capacities, knowledge and databases developed at regional, sub-regional and national levels to promote the long-term conditions for growth and development. This will enhance the capacity of African institutions to contribute to institutionalising a commitment to the core values of NEPAD within African leadership. Research co-ordination across the African continent will be enhanced.

Despite an obvious need to build capacity at all levels, there has been a tendency in the past to focus on the collection of certificates with little attention being paid to actual ability to transfer newly acquired knowledge to institutions and processes. As a consequence, the plan outlined below emphasises the simultaneous development of:

• The structures and systems which support development and enable people to work (support)
• The values and culture which encourage appropriate working practices and values (research)
• The development of skills to perform more effectively (training)

The purpose of the plan is to build sustainable capacity by ensuring that knowledge developed from interventions is replicable and adaptable to local circumstances. As a consequence, a strong evaluation and review process has been built into the programme. The three areas of intervention are as follows:

Training interventions are directed towards developing the capacity of individuals to perform to perform more effectively. These initiatives need to be linked to longer term interventions that build institutional capacity and knowledge over time. The type of training initiative envisaged in each area varies and involves:

• Colloquia: high level meetings for officials in specific focus areas with a view to developing guidelines and sharing expertise
• Seminars: depicted as a 12-day residential session in specialised areas. It is assumed that these would take place on a regional basis – North, South, East, West and Central Africa – with an average of 30 participants. Existing regional institutions and infrastructure will be used where possible.
• Postgraduate development: These interventions involve long-term educational programmes to enhance skills and capacity in the focus areas. They could include Masters-level management or finance courses. It would result in high-level skills and research capacity.
• Technical expertise: These interventions can involve a range of strategies to build capacities in institutions and directly related to work. It could include work placements, exchanges, fellowships and seconded technical experts.

Research interventions have two components:

• The first is related the monitoring and evaluation of capacity building initiatives to ensure that effective learning is achieved and opportunities for development are maximised. The basic costs for a baseline and evaluation assessment of each intervention have been included.
• The second is related to the generation of African research capacity, knowledge and resources in the focus areas. Particularly important as part of this process is the dissemination of information and its relation to the sustainability of NEPAD and the shifting of orientation and strategies. An important aspect of this aspect of research is the development of databases and clearinghouses for information and documentation in the focus areas.

Given this approach, the following broad interventions are required in the research area. More specific requirements are outlined in each of the focus areas.

1. Programme Costs

A simple financial model attached provides scope for experimenting with what the actual programme costs will be. However, an initial estimate a five-year capacity building programme is provided below. This is a relatively conservative estimate of costs taking into consideration the number and range of programmes that would need to be implemented. One of the main constraints for capacity building in Africa is a lack of capacity to deliver. This has been addressed through the development and support of centres of excellence but it is likely that development interventions will take time to get established and into place. It is no use allocated resources that are likely to go unspent while the groundwork is being done.

The tables below demonstrate overall estimated costs as well as provide a breakdown for each of the areas of intervention, namely:

• Training
• Research
• Support

7. Conclusion

The NEPAD Secretariat is responsible for developing a comprehensive, practical and focused capacity development programme for NEPAD. It is expected that this programme will be guided by a detailed implementation plan that focuses on the core areas of intervention within the identified capacity building priority areas.

This proposal provides the broad framework for a capacity building initiative for NEPAD, as well as the key areas of intervention and implementation for each of the focus areas. The implementation plan includes a framework for ensuring the sustainable development of capacity in Africa by Africans over the long term. This is particularly important given the reliance on donor funding in the short to medium term.

It should be noted that the proposal was developed using African expertise in the particular focus areas and it was assumed that this would run parallel to the process defined by the Secretariat which includes workshops and development with focus groups including all the member groups. It has been structured to enable working groups to define and shift priorities and challenges and examine costing options for capacity development in Africa.

 

9. References

ACBF 2002 Helping Africa Claim the 21^st Century Consolidated Strategic medium-Term Plan 2002-2006 Harare

HSIC 2002. Communiqué issued at the end of the second meeting of the Heads of State and Government Implementation Committee of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (HSIC). Abuja, 26 March 2002.

Lusthaus, C., Anderson, G. and Murphy, E. 1995 Institutional Assessment A Framework for Strengthening organisation Capacity for IDRC’s Research Partners Ottawa: IDRC

ISS, 2002. ISS Conference on the Impact of Security Sector Transformation Challenges of NEPAD on SADC and the AU, Saldanha: 20-22 May 2002.

NEPAD Peace and Security Cluster, 2002. Rapporteur Report: Concrete Steps for Policy and Programme Development. Pretoria: 6-7 May.

NEPAD Secretariat 2002 Report on NEPAD Capacity Building Roundtable, 8 March

NEPAD 2001. The New Partnership for Africa’s Development. October 2001.

OAU [nd]. Draft Protocol Relating to the Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution of the African Union.

OAU 2002. Draft Programme Funding Proposal for the Implementation of the Peace and Security Agenda of the African Union.

Ogiogio, G. and Ongile, G. 2001 Towards a Best Practice Model In Capacity Building: The ACBF-PACT Model Harare: The African Capacity Building Foundation