BUDGET REVIEW CASE STUDIES 1999
PUBLIC SERVICE EMPLOYMENT
Gender |
EC |
FS |
Gaut |
KZN |
Mpum |
NW |
NC |
North |
WC |
Prov |
Nat’l |
Total |
Men |
37 |
41 |
32 |
39 |
41 |
39 |
38 |
49 |
37 |
39 |
74 |
49 |
Women |
63 |
59 |
68 |
61 |
59 |
61 |
62 |
51 |
63 |
61 |
26 |
51 |
There are over 300 occupational categories in the public service. The categories differ widely from one another in terms of the number of employees involved. One third (34%) of all public servants are teachers at colleges and schools. This occupational category accounts for 47% of all African women public servants and 42% of all Indian women. It is the biggest occupational grouping among all race-gender groupings except white men. Only 14% of white male public servants are teachers, while almost twice as many (26%) are functional personnel in the SA Police Service. Overall, this latter category accounts for 9% of all national and provincial public servants.
Public service pay is linked to skill level, with all employees falling into one of seven broad categories. Women are slightly under-represented in the lower-skilled category, where they account for 41% of all workers. They are far more severely under-represented in all levels from highly skilled supervision upwards. They account for 25% of the highly skilled supervision group, 14% of management and 12% of senior management. The percentage increases again to 29% of the highest earning "other" category, but this category contains a total of only seven employees – five men and two women.
Skill and pay levels in the public service
Skill level |
Salary (R) |
Women |
Men |
Lower Skilled |
0-27443 |
41% |
59% |
Skilled |
27444-47612 |
54% |
46% |
Highly Skilled Production |
47613-111653 |
54% |
46% |
Highly Skilled Supervision |
111654-171425 |
25% |
75% |
Management |
171426-233078 |
14% |
86% |
Senior Management |
233079-332205 |
12% |
88% |
Other |
>332205 |
29% |
71% |
TOTAL |
50% |
50% |
DEPARTMENT OF TRADE & INDUSTRY
Race |
Men |
Women |
% women |
African |
3649 |
2710 |
43% |
Coloured |
0 |
0 |
|
Indian |
0 |
0 |
|
White |
767 |
339 |
31% |
Subtotal |
4416 |
3049 |
41% |
Disabled |
17 |
26 |
60% |
Total |
4433 |
3075 |
41% |
Source: Department of Trade and Industry
Of the applicants for the tax holiday scheme, 12% were women, 59% white men, 15% black men. The remainder were companies and closed corporations.
Applicants for the Small/Medium Manufacturing Development Programme do not submit disaggregated statistics at the time of their application. Instead they supply figures when claiming. By 3 November 1998, 70 of the approved projects had submitted claims. Between them the projects had created over 450 jobs, of which around nine in ten were held by Africans, and just over half by women. The projects did not report any employment of disabled people.
Employment generated by Small/Medium Manufacturing Development Programme
Race |
Male |
Female |
% women |
Black |
197 |
212 |
52% |
Coloured |
2 |
8 |
80% |
Asian |
1 |
8 |
89% |
White |
23 |
6 |
21% |
Total |
223 |
234 |
51% |
Source: Department of Trade and Industry
Small, Medium and Micro-enterprises (SMMEs)
The Export Marketing and Investment Assistance Scheme (EMIA) of the Department of Trade and Industry provides partial compensation to exporters for costs incurred in developing export markets. Schemes qualifying for support include:
• Primary export market research
• Outward selling trade missions
• Inward buying trade missions
• Exhibition assistance
• Assistance to industry specific sectors
• Outward investment recruitment missions
• Inward investment missions
• Foreign direct investment research
Between August 1997 and March 1998 323 previously disadvantaged individuals (PDIs) and 791 women-owned SMMEs received assistance through the scheme.
Ntsika Enterprise Promotion Agency provides services to SMMEs through a broad range of intermediaries. Ntsika makes special efforts to reach those who are disadvantaged – whether on account of their race, gender or location. In the second quarter of 1998 assistance provided included the following:
Training and Capacity Building
50 women entrepreneurs
12 rural enterprises
Technopreneur programme providing access to technology and appropriate skills
26 women entrepreneurs
62 previously disadvantaged individuals
17 youth
2 disabled people
School Leavers Opportunity Programme (SLOT) aimed at empowering young people
142 men and 141 women
Women Enterprise Initiative Support Programme
98 women entrepreneurs
30 women and youth
Market and Linkages
18 women entrepreneurs
73 previously disadvantaged individuals
48 youth
Business Development Services
2668 men and 1514 women.
Khula Enterprise Finance Ltd is a wholesale financial institution which provides financial support to SMMEs through a variety of programmes and services. These include a Credit Guarantee Scheme, Khula Start Programme, Seed Loans. Khula uses Retail Financial Intermediaries to provide onlending support to the SMMEs.
DEPARTMENT OF WELFARE
Social Security
Each month the provincial Welfare departments distribute close on R1,5 bn to approximately 2,7 beneficiaries. Old age pensions accounts for approximately two-thirds of both beneficiaries and the total amount. Disability grants accounted for close on a quarter of beneficiaries and funds. The maintenance grant, which is being phased out, still accounted for 8% of beneficiaries and 7% of total payments in October 1998.
Social grants as at October 1998
Grant type |
Beneficiaries |
% |
Amount |
% |
Old Age |
1781878 |
66% |
942323002 |
66% |
War Veteran |
9787 |
0% |
5145654 |
0% |
Disability |
624808 |
23% |
343231176 |
24% |
Maintenance |
226379 |
8% |
95219205 |
7% |
Foster Care |
44352 |
2% |
29401680 |
2% |
Maintenance/Foster |
1854 |
0% |
1713470 |
0% |
Institution |
395 |
0% |
46748 |
0% |
Care Dependency |
12931 |
0% |
8777028 |
1% |
Unclaimed |
1729 |
0% |
0 |
0% |
Child Support |
5006 |
0% |
1308755 |
0% |
Total |
2709119 |
100% |
1427166718 |
100% |
Overall, two-thirds of grant recipients are women. The proportion of women is highest for the grants targeted at caregivers – the maintenance grant, care dependency grant, child support grant and foster care grant. Seven out of ten old age pensioners are also women, reflecting the lower age of eligibility for women (60 instead of 65 years), higher average longevity and greater poverty of women. The war veteran’s and institutional grants both have significantly more men than women beneficiaries, while slightly over half of recipients of disability grants are men.
Percentage of grants going to women by grant type and province
W Cape |
E Cape |
N Cape |
Free St |
KZN |
N West |
Gauteng |
Mpuml |
Northern |
Total |
|
Old Age |
70 |
62 |
68 |
74 |
78 |
65 |
73 |
75 |
59 |
70 |
War Vet |
16 |
24 |
7 |
9 |
20 |
48 |
17 |
33 |
3 |
18 |
Disability |
40 |
48 |
43 |
45 |
49 |
51 |
44 |
49 |
46 |
47 |
Mainten |
99 |
99 |
98 |
97 |
99 |
98 |
99 |
99 |
99 |
99 |
Foster |
91 |
95 |
92 |
86 |
92 |
88 |
86 |
82 |
82 |
90 |
Mnt/Fost |
99 |
100 |
100 |
99 |
100 |
95 |
97 |
97 |
100 |
99 |
Institution |
41 |
25 |
50 |
31 |
35 |
37 |
||||
CareDep |
97 |
99 |
96 |
95 |
98 |
95 |
96 |
97 |
96 |
97 |
Unclaim |
100 |
35 |
59 |
53 |
59 |
23 |
50 |
|||
ChildSup |
94 |
94 |
93 |
93 |
97 |
95 |
95 |
98 |
97 |
95 |
Total |
70 |
62 |
66 |
68 |
72 |
62 |
69 |
71 |
58 |
67 |
Social Welfare
Province |
Amount |
Women |
Children |
Eastern Cape |
312574 |
130 |
140 |
Free State |
164792 |
70 |
210 |
Gauteng |
346300 |
279 |
279 |
KwaZulu-Natal |
302474 |
360 |
400 |
Mpumalanga |
368669 |
333 |
305 |
North West |
318909 |
130 |
327 |
Northern |
592000 |
70 |
120 |
Northern Cape |
189975 |
40 |
50 |
Western Cape |
400000 |
36 |
32 |
Total |
2995693 |
1448 |
1863 |
Source: Department of Welfare
DEPARTMENT OF LAND AFFAIRS
By 31 August 1998 over 100000 households had formally registered their interest in respect of land redistribution projects. Of these households, 77000 had their projects approved, and over 35000 had been designated. To achieve this milestone, the beneficiaries had formed a legal entity, identified land, reached agreement with the owner on the price, completed initial land use planning and the Minister had approved the release of subsidy funds.
Close on 20000 households had received final transfer of land. Just under 10% of households who had received transferred were described as woman-headed (WHH). The percentage described as headed by women was highest in Gauteng (at 45%) and lowest in Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga (3-5%). These statistics understate the extent to which women were gaining access to land. In many of these households the man named as household head would have been absent for much of the year in an urban area. Gauteng accounted for over a quarter of all households with transfer, followed by Mpumalanga (21%) and Eastern Cape (19%). Approximately 85% of the transferred project are held under trusts, 10% consist of Communal Property Associations and the remainder are companies.
Progress in land redistribution to households as at 31 August 1998
Register |
Approved |
Designated |
Transfer |
|||||
Number |
WHH |
Number |
WHH |
Number |
WHH |
Number |
WHH |
|
E Cape |
13349 |
4% |
8116 |
7% |
5351 |
11% |
3708 |
3% |
Free State |
5594 |
13% |
4120 |
16% |
3975 |
17% |
1430 |
19% |
Gauteng |
22972 |
3% |
23443 |
3% |
1808 |
26% |
75 |
45% |
KZN |
14063 |
4% |
12824 |
4% |
7654 |
8% |
5525 |
4% |
Mpumalanga |
9855 |
5% |
6378 |
8% |
5679 |
9% |
4088 |
5% |
N Cape |
6039 |
5% |
2517 |
13% |
2208 |
13% |
1741 |
8% |
Northern |
9690 |
27% |
7999 |
30% |
3618 |
38% |
1089 |
14% |
North West |
17124 |
4% |
8645 |
9% |
3519 |
15% |
1750 |
27% |
W Cape |
4166 |
11% |
3695 |
9% |
1559 |
13% |
356 |
24% |
Total |
102852 |
7% |
77737 |
9% |
35371 |
15% |
19762 |
9% |
Source: Department of Land Affairs
The Department’s Monitoring and Evaluation Directorate has established a system of ongoing surveys whereby it monitors, on a medium- to long-term basis, what happens to the households which gain access to land. The Department is particularly concerned as to what conditions facilitate the improvement of the economic conditions of community members. It is also concerned about access of those who are resettled to basic services which are the responsibility of other departments or of provincial and local government. The Department is currently investigating more effective ways of working together with these other roleplayers.
DEPARTMENT OF WATER AFFAIRS & FORESTRY
Between April 1994 and end September 1998 over 500000 households were supplied with safe, clean water for the first time. Over 57000 person-years of jobs had been created through the Community Water Supply and Sanitation Programme. Over 31000 (or 55%) of these person-years were accounted for by women, and a further 14240 (approximately 25%) by young women and men aged between 16 and 25 years.
Jobs created, in person-years, on Department’s water supply programmes
End March 1998 |
End Sept 1998 |
|
Province |
Total |
Total |
Eastern Cape |
2840 |
5840 |
Western Cape |
435 |
450 |
North West |
9200 |
11310 |
Northern Cape |
1285 |
1380 |
Northern Province |
10130 |
15200 |
Mpumalanga |
6650 |
7250 |
KwaZulu Natal |
9535 |
13820 |
Free State |
1405 |
1880 |
Total |
41480 |
57130 |
Source: Department of Water Affairs & Forestry
The 1996 census revealed that in October 1996 45% of households had their main water source inside their dwelling, 17% had a tap on site, 20% used a public tap, while the rest used other sources. Only just over half (51%) of households had a flush or chemical toilet, 32% were using a pit latrine, 5% were dependent on bucket toilets, and 12% had no proper toilet facilities. The majority of those without access to adequate water and sanitation services are in rural areas. Poor or inadequate services affect all community members. They place a special burden on women who are responsible for most of the household tasks as well as for seeing to the health needs of family members.
The Working for Water Programme of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry focuses on the clearing of ‘thirsty’ invading alien plants and the rehabilitation of degraded land. The Programme is a public works initiative in that it provides jobs for unemployed people living in the many communities around the country in whose areas it has been implemented. The Programme has consistently favoured women in allocating jobs. It has provided for creches to make this possible where women are constrained by child care responsibilities and has included family planning, HIV/AIDS and other gender-related issues in the training offered to workers.
The table below indicates both the average number of people and the average number and percentage of women employed in the last month of each quarter in the Working for Water Programme. At the end of March 1998 there were 42059 people employed, of whom 55% were women.
Average number of jobs created per quarter in Working for Water
4th 95 |
1st 96 |
2nd 96 |
3rd 96 |
4th 96 |
1st 97 |
2nd 97 |
3rd 97 |
4th 97 |
1st 98 |
|
All |
4053 |
6027 |
6092 |
5440 |
6637 |
8386 |
7737 |
8139 |
14286 |
40781 |
Women |
2084 |
3030 |
2911 |
2706 |
3364 |
4483 |
3991 |
4441 |
6379 |
20455 |
% Wom |
51% |
50% |
48% |
50% |
51% |
53% |
52% |
55% |
45% |
50% |
Source: Department of Water Affairs and Forestry
Working for Water’s strategy document includes a range of commitments to addressing the needs of marginalised groups. These include:
• that 60% of the salaries and wages should be paid to women;
• that 20% of the salaries and wages should be paid to youth between the ages of 16 and 25;
• that 2% of the salaries and wages should be paid to people who are physically or mentally disabled;
• that at least 67% of the work should be undertaken by people living in rural communities;
• that at least 50% of salaries earned in 1999/2000 by those in management positions will go to black people, and that this percentage will increase to 67% in 2000/1 and 75% in 2001/2;
• that a special emphasis be placed on employing single parents, and attempting to ensure that a policy of flexible time is applied where feasible for those with additional responsibilities in their homes;
• that not more than one person per household be employed in communities with households where no-one is employed.
DEPARTMENT OF LABOUR
The Unemployment Insurance Act provides for benefits to be paid to contributors or their dependants in the event of unemployment, illness, maternity, adoption and death. The Act is funded through earnings-related contributions by employers and employees. Benefits are calculated at 45% of the salary earned prior to unemployment, and are payable for a maximum of six months.
In the twelve-month period November 1997 to October 1998, 559741 individuals obtained benefits from the Unemployment Insurance Fund (UIF), of whom 38% were women. 87% of all beneficiaries obtained ordinary unemployment benefits, 9% obtained maternity benefits and 3% illness benefits. The total amount awarded amounted to R1874 million, of which 36% went to women beneficiaries.
Unemployment Insurance benefits November 1997-October 1998
Claimants |
Amount |
|||||
Men |
Women |
Total |
Men |
Women |
Total |
|
Unemployment |
331342 |
155403 |
486745 |
1113493015 |
489383909 |
1602876924 |
Illness |
10669 |
6548 |
17217 |
44031132 |
22385472 |
66416604 |
Maternity |
- |
48766 |
48766 |
- |
162326852 |
162326852 |
Adoption |
- |
22 |
22 |
- |
98192 |
98192 |
Death |
6149 |
842 |
6991 |
38792633 |
3717170 |
42509803 |
Total |
348160 |
211581 |
559741 |
1196316780 |
677911595 |
1874228375 |
Just over 40% of UIF beneficiaries are aged 21-34 years, and slightly under 40% in the 35-49 year age group. Over a third have educational levels of less than grade 8. Over a quarter of all beneficiaries are from Gauteng, just under a quarter from KwaZulu-Natal and 15% from the Western Cape. Each of the other provinces accounts for less than 10% of beneficiaries. Those who register for UIF benefits represent only a small subset – somewhat over 10% - of the total number of unemployed people in the country.
The Department of Labour also provides a service whereby unemployed people over 15 years of age can register as job-seekers at Labour Offices and Centres. The Department will then attempt to find them a suitable job. Approximately 10% of all UIF beneficiaries tend to register as job-seekers. In the first quarter of 1998 women accounted for an average of 45% of registered job-seekers. The unskilled and service occupations together accounted for a third of all job-seekers.
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS
The Community-based Public Works Programme
As noted in the 1998 Budget Review, independent evaluations of the Community Based Public Works Programme (CBPWP) identified valuable lessons for policy development. These included:
• the need for more detailed targeting focusing on rural areas, poverty and specifically on women;
• the need for more active promotion of directly productive and labour-saving infrastructure, together with projects to improve access and terms of trade – again taking account of the continuing benefits likely to raise the levels of living of poor women and their households;
• provision for the construction of clusters at the local level, aiming for mutually reinforcing benefits;
• the need to strengthen the internal programme monitoring system.
The Department began introducing these refinements in the Rural Anti-Poverty Programme (RAP), supported by a poverty relief allocation of R85 million in November 1997. The refinements will be continued and spread under the Realigned CBPWP, with an allocation of R274 million announced in September 1998.
The revised Programme Management System for the Realigned CBPWP sets a target that at least 50% of the members of community committees should be women. Women are also expected to account for at least 50% of temporary construction workers, as well as of longer-term beneficiaries from the operation and use of completed assets.
Policy Convergence in the Provision of Physical Infrastructure
In budgetary terms the Consolidated Municipal Infrastructure Programme (CMIP) and its predecessors have been among the biggest public investments in much-needed bulk and connecting infrastructure. The Department of Constitutional Development is administering this programme in line with its support role for local government.
DCD has established a Municipal Infrastructure Task Team (MITT) comprising representatives of all the major government and quasi-government agencies providing different types of physical infrastructure. The guiding purpose of the MITT is to achieve coordination among all such programmes. The approach is not to expect absolute uniformity in the detailed administration of each initiative. Instead the aim is to achieve the closest possible harmonisation of policies and procedures for implementation. One example is the adoption by the CMIP of the geographical targeting system used by the Department of Public Works (DPW) for the Community-Based Public Works Programme.
The DPW has prepared a discussion paper identifying twelve policy concerns from the CBPWP perspective. These include gender equity, wages and the balance between economic and social imperatives in project design and implementation. The next step will be to take stock of the experience of other agencies, such as the departments of Agriculture, Education, Health, Water Affairs and Forestry, Welfare, Housing and Transport. Thereafter, practical steps will be taken to achieve inter-departmental convergence and complementarity of approach.
SOUTH AFRICAN REVENUE SERVICES/TAXATION
In late 1998 a total of 2263079 people were registered as individual taxpayers. Of these, 1516262(67%) were men and 746816 (33%) were women. [one missing?] In addition, 180393 trusts were registered as individuals for tax purposes.
AGRICULTURE
The Land Bank has designed a number of financial products to cater for the needs of women. One of these new products, called "Step-UP’, is designed to give credit access to rural women who have no collateral base. Over time their collateral will be the track record that they develop with the Land Bank.
The provincial Departments of Agriculture employ extension officers who provide a range of services to farmers. The Departments are endeavouring to increase the proportion of small farmers reached by these services. KwaZulu-Natal estimates that between 72% and 95% of farmer beneficiaries of extension services in each of its five districts are women. Overall, over three-quarters of the close on 150000 beneficiares are women. North West estimates that 38% of the over 27000 beneficiaries are women while Free State estimates a slightly higher percentage, at 42%.
The proportion of extension officers who are women varies widely, from none in Northern and Western Cape to 45% of a small number of extension officers in Gauteng, with a third of much larger numbers in KwaZulu-Natal and Free State.
Extensions officers
Women |
Men |
Total |
%women |
|
E Cape |
48 |
364 |
412 |
12% |
Western |
4 |
9 |
13 |
31% |
Eastern |
4 |
124 |
128 |
3% |
E Griqua |
N/a |
N/a |
N/a |
N/a |
Central |
35 |
135 |
170 |
21% |
Northern |
5 |
96 |
101 |
5% |
KZN |
112 |
226 |
338 |
33% |
N East |
47 |
97 |
144 |
33% |
N West |
27 |
58 |
85 |
32% |
S East |
29 |
54 |
83 |
35% |
S West |
9 |
17 |
26 |
35% |
Mpumalanga |
87 |
288 |
75 |
23% |
N Highveld |
2 |
54 |
56 |
4% |
S Highveld |
54 |
65 |
119 |
45% |
Lowveld |
31 |
169 |
200 |
16% |
Northern |
99 |
505 |
604 |
16% |
N Cape |
0 |
22 |
22 |
0% |
N West |
29 |
244 |
273 |
11% |
W Cape |
0 |
34 |
34 |
0% |
Gauteng |
17 |
21 |
38 |
45% |
Free State |
69 |
137 |
206 |
33% |
ARTS, CULTURE, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Race |
Gender |
Grantees |
Percentage |
Amount (R) |
African |
Women |
191 |
10% |
1 296 810 |
|
Men |
304 |
16% |
2 423 420 |
Indian |
Women |
86 |
4% |
577 020 |
|
Men |
69 |
4% |
857 141 |
Coloured |
Women |
93 |
5% |
702 104 |
|
Men |
96 |
5% |
942 141 |
White |
Women |
561 |
29% |
6 079 003 |
|
Men |
522 |
27% |
8 393 468 |
Total |
Women |
931 |
48% |
8 654 937 |
|
Men |
991 |
52% |
12 616 170 |
In 1998/9 197 (13%) of the 1496 grantholders supported by the Research and Support Division of the Foundation for Research Development were women. In the same year, 1268 (40%) of the 3151 students receiving grant-linked and free-standing bursaries from the FRD, 45 (53%) of the 85 people supported by Hartebeesthoek Radio Astronomy Observatory, and 12 (32%) of the 38 university and technikon students trained through the South African Astronomical Observatory were women.
CORRECTIONAL SERVICES
As at end September 1998, South Africa’s prisons contained 134836 prisoners, of whom 2% were women. Over a quarter of all prisoners were held in Gauteng jails, 16% in Western Cape, 15% in KwaZulu-Natal and 12% in the Eastern Cape. Over half (52%) of all prisoners were African men and a further 42% coloured men. White women accounted for 6% of all white prisoners, while women of other race groups accounted for around 2% of prisoners in the other population groups.
Prisoners as at 30 September 1998
Men |
Women |
Total |
|
Free State |
11521 |
267 |
11788 |
Mpumlanga |
8466 |
132 |
8598 |
KwaZulu-Natal |
20852 |
583 |
21435 |
Eastern Cape |
15766 |
521 |
16287 |
Western Cape |
22253 |
536 |
22789 |
North West |
10031 |
121 |
10152 |
Northern Cape |
4558 |
131 |
4689 |
Northern |
3959 |
113 |
4072 |
Gauteng |
37737 |
889 |
38626 |
Total |
135143 |
3293 |
138436 |
EDUCATION
Province |
Type |
Girls |
Boys |
Total |
% girls |
Eastern Cape |
Independent |
9489 |
9459 |
18948 |
50% |
Public |
1080998 |
1003777 |
2084775 |
52% |
|
Free State |
Independent |
5677 |
5555 |
11232 |
51% |
Public |
390775 |
381270 |
772045 |
51% |
|
Gauteng |
Independent |
48110 |
44049 |
92159 |
52% |
Public |
696128 |
685865 |
1381993 |
50% |
|
KwaZulu-Natal |
Independent |
12796 |
10540 |
23336 |
55% |
Public |
1400048 |
1394299 |
2794347 |
50% |
|
Mpumalanga |
Independent |
2337 |
2002 |
4339 |
54% |
Public |
437852 |
430322 |
868174 |
50% |
|
Northern Cape |
Independent |
2731 |
2510 |
5241 |
52% |
Public |
91922 |
92466 |
184388 |
50% |
|
Northern Province |
Independent |
3653 |
3609 |
7262 |
50% |
Public |
927678 |
921541 |
1849219 |
50% |
|
Western Cape |
Independent |
9212 |
8561 |
17773 |
52% |
Public |
428320 |
425476 |
853796 |
50% |
|
Total excl NWest |
Independent |
94005 |
86285 |
180290 |
52% |
Public |
5453721 |
5335016 |
10788737 |
51% |
|
NorthWest |
All schools |
470183 |
464037 |
934220 |
50% |
Total |
6017909 |
5885338 |
11903247 |
51% |
Source: Department of Education
Nationally there were 559 233 candidates who wrote six or more subjects in the 1997 senior certificate examination. The overall pass rate was 47,4%. In all provinces there were more women than men candidates. Overall 56% of the candidates were women. In all provinces except Free State more women than men passed the examination. However, the pass rate for women (44,1%) was lower than that for men (51,6%). 11% of women and 14% of men candidates passed with university endorsements.
Mathematics and Physical Science have been identified as subjects of great benefit both to the country and to the personal advancement of the individual scholar. In 1997 53% of students who wrote the senior certificate mathematics examination were women, but women accounted for only 48% of the passes in this subject. In Physical Science women accounted for 48% of the candidates but 44% of the passes.
In 1997, 368329 students were enrolled at South African universities, of whom 82% were studying at the undergraduate level. Just over half (52%) of all university students were African, and just under half (49%) were white. Women accounted for more than half of total university enrolments, and more than half of undergraduate enrolments. However, only 46% of those studying at postgraduate level were women.
In the same year 193700 students were enrolled at South African technikons. Close on two-thirds of these students were African and 25% were white. Women accounted for 42% of students at both pre- and post-diploma levels.
Race and gender distribution of university and technikon enrolments 1997
Afr |
Col |
Ind |
Wht |
Unsp |
Total |
TOT |
|||||||
Men |
Wom |
Men |
Wom |
Men |
Wom |
Men |
Wom |
Men |
Wom |
Men |
Wom |
Total |
|
Univers |
|||||||||||||
Undgrad |
22% |
32% |
2% |
3% |
3% |
4% |
16% |
17% |
0% |
0% |
44% |
56% |
100% |
Pstgrad |
20% |
19% |
3% |
2% |
3% |
3% |
27% |
22% |
0% |
0% |
54% |
46% |
100% |
Total |
22% |
30% |
2% |
2% |
3% |
4% |
18% |
18% |
0% |
0% |
46% |
54% |
100% |
Technik |
|||||||||||||
Pre-dipl |
35% |
28% |
4% |
2% |
3% |
2% |
16% |
9% |
0% |
0% |
58% |
42% |
100% |
Pst-dipl |
17% |
18% |
6% |
3% |
5% |
4% |
31% |
17% |
0% |
0% |
58% |
42% |
100% |
Total |
35% |
28% |
4% |
2% |
3% |
2% |
16% |
9% |
0% |
0% |
58% |
42% |
100% |
Source: Department of Education
HEALTH
The Department of Health conducts national surveys of HIV prevalence among women attending the antenatal clinics of the public health service. The overall prevalence increased from 7,6% in 1994 to 16,0% in 1998. Geographically, the rate was highest in North-West province where a quarter of the women were found to be HIV positive. In terms of age, prevalence was highest among women aged 25 to 29 years.
National HIV surveys of women attending public antenatal clinics: Estimated HIV+
|
1994 |
1995 |
1996 |
1997 |
South Africa |
7.6 |
10.4 |
14.2 |
16.0 |
Western Cape |
1.2 |
1.7 |
3.1 |
6.3 |
Eastern Cape |
4.5 |
6.0 |
8.1 |
12.6 |
Northern Cape |
1.8 |
5.3 |
6.5 |
8.6 |
Free State |
9.2 |
11.0 |
17.5 |
19.6 |
KwaZulu Natal |
14.4 |
18.2 |
19.9 |
26.9 |
Mpumalanga |
12.2 |
16.2 |
15.8 |
22.6 |
Northern |
3.0 |
4.9 |
8.0 |
8.2 |
Gauteng |
6.4 |
12.0 |
15.5 |
17.1 |
North West |
6.7 |
8.3 |
25.1 |
18.1 |
Age group |
|
|
|
|
< 20 years |
6.5 |
9.5 |
12.9 |
12.7 |
20-24 years |
8.9 |
13.1 |
17.7 |
19.7 |
25-29 years |
8.6 |
11.0 |
15.3 |
18.2 |
30-34 years |
6.4 |
8.1 |
12.2 |
14.5 |
35-39 years |
3.7 |
7.4 |
9.7 |
9.5 |
40-44 years |
5.3 |
4.4 |
10.2 |
7.5 |
45-49 years |
0.4 |
7.5 |
5.8 |
8.8 |
Source: Department of Health, Pretoria
[I am assuming that the rest of the discussion under Health will include the Department’s approach to HIV/AIDS]
HOUSING
In 1994 the Department of Housing introduced a new National Housing Programme with the ambitious target of delivering one million subsidised housing units by the end of 1999. By end August 1998 over 800000 housing subsidies had been approved and 600000 housing units had been completed or were under construction.
The Department surveyed 200000 of the units in seven provinces for its Housing and Urbanisation Information System (HUIS). The HUIS sample suggests that by August 1998 37% of all approved subsidies were registered in the name of women. In Eastern Cape, Northern Province and Free State approximately 45% of subsidies were registered in the name of women.
Subsidies approved to end August 1998
|
Number women |
% women |
Number men |
% men |
Total number |
E Cape |
20385 |
45 |
24551 |
55 |
44936 |
Free State |
12709 |
44 |
15932 |
56 |
28641 |
Mpumalanga |
6109 |
20 |
24786 |
80 |
30895 |
North West |
11713 |
37 |
19831 |
63 |
31544 |
N Cape |
3838 |
26 |
10734 |
74 |
14572 |
Northern |
7017 |
45 |
8646 |
55 |
15663 |
W Cape |
13510 |
37 |
22979 |
63 |
36489 |
Total |
75281 |
37 |
127459 |
63 |
202740 |
Source: HUIS database, Department of Housing
The Housing Monitor tracks delivery of housing units priced below R150000. Their statistics relate only to projects and project-linked subsidies. In late 1998 there were over 1000 active housing projects in this price bracket. Between them these projects accounted for over 703000 units. The level of delivery in low-priced housing has increased significantly over the last few years, as shown in the table below. The number of units per project has also increased under the influence of the government’s project-linked subsidies. In November 1994 only 108 of over 500 projects were subsidised. In June 1998, 825 of 1037 projects were subsidised.
In 1989 the Northern provinces of Gauteng, Mpumalanga and Northern Province accounted for the largest number of projects. By 1998 KwaZulu-Natal had overtaken the Northern Provinces. Delivery in the Cape provinces of Western, Eastern and Northern Cape and North West was lowest throughout the period.
Level of activity in low cost housing projects by region, 1989-1998
|
North |
KZN |
Free State |
Cape |
Total |
Units |
Nov 89 |
173 |
162 |
33 |
25 |
393 |
257000 |
Nov 90 |
244 |
101 |
127 |
53 |
525 |
220500 |
Nov 91 |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
189400 |
Nov 92 |
335 |
115 |
182 |
62 |
694 |
206800 |
Aug 93 |
182 |
107 |
138 |
69 |
496 |
211300 |
Nov 94 |
185 |
106 |
164 |
47 |
502 |
351900 |
Nov 95 |
239 |
235 |
159 |
84 |
717 |
499000 |
Nov 96 |
270 |
301 |
191 |
93 |
855 |
538700 |
Nov 97 |
363 |
361 |
228 |
110 |
1062 |
751900 |
Jun 98 |
300 |
407 |
254 |
76 |
1037 |
703100 |
Source: Settlement Dynamics
A detailed sample of 241 projects of the total of 1037 reveals that in 1998 about 93% of the projects were providing housing packages. The remainder provided serviced sites. This represents a shift from the position in mid-1996, when over 40% of the projects were providing serviced sites.
Most project-linked subsidies are administered through developers. The developer identifies the land and beneficiaries who qualify for the subsidy, sets up a social compact, gets agreement on the product, and then applies to the Provincial Housing Development Board on behalf of the beneficiaries. The Peoples’ Housing Process, on the other hand, works through existing community structures. A housing support centre is established in the community identified, and the community itself sets up an association to apply for subsidies.
The South African Homeless People’s Federation is a nation-wide movement involving nearly 65000 households from more than 1500 savings collectives in over 750 homeless communities. Approximately 85% of the Federation’s members are women. Average household income is under R700 per month.
Federation members started constructing houses from their own savings long before receiving any government assistance. In 1994 the late Minister Slovo agreed that the Federation would receive a grant of R10 million from the Department. This grant was to be used as bridging finance for housing subsidies and for housing loans. The grant is overseen by a Trust on which the government has 50% representation.
In 1995 the National Housing Board in 1995 approved a special subsidy stream for Federation members. The first funds were released in March 1996. By releasing subsidy funds directly to the Federation’s Utshani Fund, the special stream obviates the need for private developers and local authorities and allows communities to design and implement their own housing development. In so doing it significantly reduces development costs which would normally accrue to professional intermediaries such as planners, surveyors, consultants, and conveyancors. The agreement also allows for an abbreviated and much simplified application form.
The framework for the special subsidy stream, as drafted by the national Department, has so far been formally accepted in KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape and Western Cape and informally accepted in the Free State. To date the Federation has built a total of over 3300 houses, of which 1200 have been built with some assistance from government subsidies.
JUSTICE
The government is committed to establishing a judiciary which is representative of the population in terms of race and gender. By September 1998 23% of ordinary magistrates were women, 33% were African, and 5% were African women. The proportion of women decreases with increasing rank. Over 7% of those with higher rank than ordinary magistrate were women in September 1998.
Rank, race and gender of magistrates as at 1 September 1998
Special Grade C |
Chief |
Regional President |
Regional |
Senior |
Ordinary |
|
White |
|
8 |
5 |
151 |
69 |
708 |
Men |
|
7 |
5 |
143 |
65 |
524 |
Women |
|
1 |
|
8 |
4 |
184 |
Indian |
|
|
|
5 |
3 |
28 |
Men |
|
|
|
1 |
2 |
14 |
Women |
|
|
|
4 |
1 |
14 |
Coloured |
|
1 |
|
|
|
34 |
Men |
|
1 |
|
|
|
29 |
Women |
|
|
|
|
|
5 |
African |
1 |
20 |
2 |
16 |
|
373 |
Men |
1 |
19 |
2 |
15 |
78 |
317 |
Women |
|
1 |
|
1 |
4 |
56 |
Total |
1 |
29 |
7 |
172 |
154 |
1143 |
Men |
1 |
27 |
7 |
159 |
145 |
884 |
Women |
0 |
2 |
0 |
13 |
9 |
259 |
In December 1998 there were 186 judges serving in South African courts, of whom over three-quarters (144) were white men, 17% were black men, 4% were white women and 2% black women.
Race and gender of judges as at December 1998
Court |
Black men |
Black women |
White men |
White women |
Total |
Appeal |
1 |
- |
15 |
- |
16 |
N Cape |
1 |
- |
4 |
- |
5 |
E Cape |
2 |
- |
14 |
- |
16 |
W Cape |
5 |
- |
19 |
1 |
25 |
Free State |
- |
- |
12 |
- |
12 |
Transvaal |
4 |
1 |
45 |
3 |
53 |
KwaZ-Natal |
5 |
- |
16 |
1 |
22 |
Bophutatswana |
3 |
- |
3 |
- |
6 |
Transkei |
2 |
- |
4 |
- |
6 |
Ciskei |
2 |
- |
3 |
- |
5 |
Constitutional |
3 |
1 |
5 |
1 |
10 |
Land Claims |
2 |
1 |
2 |
- |
5 |
Labour |
2 |
- |
2 |
1 |
5 |
Total |
32 |
3 |
144 |
7 |
186 |
Source: Department of Justice
Legal Aid
The number of applications approved by the Legal Aid Board has increased steadily over recent years. In 1991/2 there were 57692 successful applications. By 1997/8 this had more than tripled, and stood at 193254. The amount allocated also increased, from R35m in 1991/2 to R307m in 1997/8. However in 1998/9 the amount fell again to R210m.
The percentage of successful applications relating to criminal matters increased as a proportion of the total from 66% in 1991/2 to 79% in 1997/8. The percentage of civil matters meanwhile decreased from 13% of the total to 8% and divorce matters decreased from 20% to 12%. Labour and other matters throughout accounted for less than 2% of successful applications.
Applications granted and funds allocated in terms of Judicare system
Year |
Criminal |
Civil |
Divorce |
Labour |
Total |
Funds |
1991/2 |
38247 |
7195 |
11620 |
630 |
57692 |
35206000 |
1992/3 |
45599 |
7792 |
12802 |
910 |
67103 |
56477000 |
1993/4 |
60106 |
7928 |
10354 |
1113 |
79501 |
62165000 |
1994/5 |
67062 |
7293 |
9547 |
1329 |
85231 |
66325000 |
1995/6 |
87996 |
11419 |
12373 |
1986 |
113774 |
182410000 |
1996/7 |
123983 |
16915 |
20353 |
2498 |
163749 |
156457000 |
1997/8 |
153804 |
16149 |
22870 |
1431 |
194254 |
307297000 |
Source: Legal Aid Board
The Legal Aid Board stopped collecting statistics on the race of applicants after 1995/6. It has never collected statistics on gender. Overall, however, more women than men receive assistance for divorce and more men than women in criminal matters.
During 1996 the Board reserved funds for a gender/women’s rights project. As a result of transformation processes within the Legal Aid Board, this has not received much attention to date. With the transformation complete, the Board now hopes to continue further planning for the project.
MINERALS AND ENERGY
Electrification of houses brings many benefits. Electricity can be used for both income-earning and domestic purposes. It saves time and energy and enables people to perform their tasks more efficiently. In particular, it saves women many hours fetching fuelwood. It promotes health and well-being.
The number of new connections to the electricity grid increased sharply between 1991 and 1994. The number of new connections has remained fairly constant since that date at over 400000 per year. In each year farm worker dwellings have accounted for over half of all new connections.
Annual connections by local government and Eskom, 1991-1997
1991 |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1995 |
1996 |
1997 |
|
Farmworker |
51435 |
145522 |
208801 |
254383 |
313179 |
307047 |
274345 |
Loc Govt |
31035 |
74335 |
107034 |
164535 |
150455 |
137534 |
184217 |
Eskom |
0 |
12698 |
16074 |
16838 |
15134 |
9414 |
11198 |
Total |
82470 |
232555 |
331909 |
435756 |
478768 |
453995 |
469760 |
Source: National Electricity Regulator
By December 1997 an estimated 59% of South African houses were connected to the electricity grid. The percentage of houses electrified increased by five percentage points between December 1996 and December 1997. Eastern Cape had the lowest overall rate at electrification, at 39%. Western Cape had the highest, at 84%. The proportion of houses electrified was higher – at 82% - in urban areas than in rural (32%). The rural-urban disparity was evident in all provinces. It was particularly stark in KwaZulu-Natal, where 84% of urban houses but only 20% of rural were connected.
Connections per province as at end December 1997
Province |
Type |
Population |
Houses |
Electrified |
% Elec |
Eastern Cape |
Rural |
4 470 004 |
922 249 |
187 530 |
20% |
Urban |
2 164 902 |
507 966 |
374 893 |
74% |
|
Total |
6 634 906 |
1 430 215 |
562 423 |
39% |
|
Free State |
Rural |
1 368 191 |
253 438 |
102 671 |
41% |
Urban |
1 531 872 |
367 996 |
301 573 |
82% |
|
Total |
2 900 063 |
621 434 |
404 244 |
65% |
|
Gauteng |
Rural |
330 948 |
71 524 |
38 466 |
54% |
Urban |
7 178 178 |
1 748 694 |
1 401 923 |
80% |
|
Total |
7 509 126 |
1 820 218 |
1 440 389 |
79% |
|
Kwazulu/Natal |
Rural |
5 191 308 |
1 015 880 |
203 187 |
20% |
Urban |
3 615 476 |
846 301 |
710 974 |
84% |
|
Total |
8 806 784 |
1 862 181 |
914 161 |
49% |
|
Mpumalanga |
Rural |
2 147 969 |
408 767 |
247 132 |
60% |
Urban |
930 320 |
203 402 |
150 200 |
74% |
|
Total |
3 078 289 |
612 169 |
397 332 |
65% |
|
North West |
Rural |
2 537 900 |
500 643 |
172 516 |
34% |
Urban |
1 107 565 |
235 796 |
189 501 |
80% |
|
Total |
3 645 465 |
736 439 |
362 017 |
49% |
|
Northern Cape |
Rural |
274 370 |
66 350 |
42 685 |
64% |
Urban |
555 705 |
121 689 |
102 929 |
85% |
|
Total |
830 075 |
188 039 |
145 614 |
77% |
|
Northern Province |
Rural |
4 673 406 |
960 723 |
340 415 |
35% |
Urban |
523 228 |
125 563 |
92 969 |
74% |
|
Total |
5 196 634 |
1 086 286 |
433 384 |
40% |
|
Western Cape |
Rural |
609 611 |
141 955 |
71 694 |
51% |
Urban |
3 487 020 |
830 641 |
746 853 |
90% |
|
Total |
4 096 631 |
972 596 |
818 547 |
84% |
|
Total |
Rural |
21 603 707 |
4 341 529 |
1 406 296 |
32% |
Urban |
21 094 266 |
4 988 048 |
4 071 815 |
82% |
|
TOTAL |
42 697 973 |
9 329 577 |
5 478 111 |
59% |
Source: National Electricity Regulator
PUBLIC ENTERPRISES
There are still very few women among the members of public enterprise boards.
Membership of public enterprise boards
Enterprise |
Women |
Men |
Denel |
2 |
10 |
Autonet |
0 |
9 |
Central Energy Fund |
1 |
6 |
Post Office |
1 |
6 |
Telkom |
2 |
12 |
Eskom |
1 |
10 |
Armscor |
1 |
6 |
Atomic Energy Board |
0 |
10 |
Mossgas |
2 |
3 |
Soekor |
|
|
Strategic Fuel Fund |
|
|
SA MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE
Afr |
Wht |
Ind |
Col |
N/A |
Tot |
|||||||
M |
F |
M |
F |
M |
F |
M |
F |
M |
F |
M |
F |
|
Train Trainers |
153 |
116 |
6 |
12 |
3 |
5 |
47 |
72 |
1 |
209 |
206 |
|
Provision Mngmt |
328 |
257 |
32 |
29 |
2 |
4 |
107 |
107 |
469 |
397 |
||
Policy Analysis |
23 |
26 |
1 |
1 |
9 |
10 |
33 |
37 |
||||
HR Mngmt |
482 |
468 |
55 |
51 |
34 |
39 |
240 |
344 |
147 |
174 |
958 |
1076 |
Special Programs |
79 |
66 |
7 |
6 |
6 |
3 |
45 |
114 |
6 |
3 |
143 |
192 |
Communic/Care |
104 |
161 |
7 |
26 |
3 |
1 |
67 |
153 |
8 |
21 |
189 |
362 |
Prod’vity&Quality |
216 |
217 |
17 |
42 |
14 |
37 |
126 |
223 |
53 |
80 |
426 |
599 |
TOTAL |
1385 |
1311 |
125 |
167 |
62 |
89 |
641 |
1023 |
214 |
279 |
2427 |
2869 |